Thinking to Believe

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Sargon II was followed by his son Sennacherib who ruled from 705-681 BC.  Early in his reign he began to attack and defeat the fortified cities of Judah.  One of those cities was Lachish, which he defeated in 701 BC[1], and was still present in the city when Hezekiah engaged in correspondence with him in a desperate plea to spare the overthrow of Jerusalem.

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Isaiah 20:1-2  In the year that the commander in chief [Tartan], who was sent by Sargon the king of Assyria, came to Ashdod and fought against it and captured it—2 at that time the Lord spoke by Isaiah the son of Amoz, saying, “Go, and loose the sackcloth from your waist and take off your sandals from your feet,” and he did so, walking naked and barefoot.

Ashdod was a Philistine city.  They rebelled in 713 BC, and were defeated by 711 BC by the commanding officer [Tartan] of Sargon II’s army.  The only problem was this story was that there was no extra-biblical evidence of Sargon’s existence.  Scholars once believed that either Isaiah was mistaken, or that Sargon was an alternate name for another Assyrian king.  The mystery was resolved in 1842 when Sargon II’s palace was discovered.  Sargon II was a genuine historical figure.  He reigned from 722-705 BC.  The reason scholars did not find any trace of him in the Assyrian records at Ninevah is because his palace was not located in Ninevah, but in Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad,Iraq).  Sargon had moved the capital there.

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In the mid-1990s a very important bulla showed up on the antiquities market.  A bulla is a flattened lump of hardened clay bearing the impression of a seal.  They were used to seal papyrus documents.  The papyrus would be folded and tied with a string.  A soft lump of clay would then be placed on the string and impressed with a signet ring or pendant bearing the seal of the sender.  The clay would harden, thus securing the contents of the document.

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2 Kings 16:7  So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria, saying, “I am your servant and your son. Come up and rescue me from the hand of the king of Syria and from the hand of the king of Israel [Pekah], who are attacking me.” (ESV)  See also Isaiah 7.

Tiglath-Pileser III was a prominent Assyrian king (745–727 BC).  Austen Henry Layard discovered his palace in 1873-4.  Also discovered were multiple inscriptions that were summary statements of TPIII’s accomplishments.

Summary statement number seven dates to 729 BC and reads: “In all the countries which… [I received] the tribute of… Jehoahaz (this is Ahaz with a theophoric prefix attached) of Judah…(consisting of) gold, silver, tin, iron, antimony, linen garments with multicolored trimmings….”

Given the historical context provides in Scripture, it is likely that Ahaz paid this tribute to TPIII to secure his alliance against the kings of Israel and Syria who were fighting against him.  Once again, this confirms the Biblical record.

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Sometime around 1979 an ivory pomegranate no bigger than a human thumb and dated to the 8^th century BC showed up on the antiquities market.  Around the top it contains an inscription which reads, “[Belonging] to the House of [Yahwe]h, consecrated to the priests.”  Some scholars think this pomegranate adorned the head of a priestly scepter from Solomon’s temple.

While the authenticity of the pomegranate itself is not in dispute, the inscription is.  Professor Yitzhak Roman of the Hebrew University examined the inscription with an electron microscope and is convinced it is authentic, not a modern forgery.[1]

The debate will linger on, but if the inscription is proven to be authentic, it is a truly significant find.

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Numbers 22-24 tells the story of the prophet Balaam, son of Beor.  The children of Israel had finally entered the Promised Land and were conquering the inhabitants of the land one after another.  The Moabites, fearing they would be next, hired Balaam to curse the children of Israel.  While he tried his best, God prevented him from doing so.  Instead, he blessed them.

There was no extra-biblical record of a prophet by this name, but in 1967 Dutch archaeologists excavating in Deir ‘Alla, Jordan, uncovered one.  They found 119 fragments of plaster with ink writing carbon-dated to ~800 BC (the time of Ahab).  The language is a mix between Aramaic and Canaanite.  The presence of archaic words indicates it is based on an older text.

When put together, the fragments tell the story of a prophet, Balaam son of Beor, had a vision in which the people would be chastised by a fiery judgment:

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2 Kings 12:4-5  Jehoash said to the priests, “All the money of the holy things that is brought into the house of the Lord, the money for which each man is assessed—the money from the assessment of persons—and the money that a man’s heart prompts him to bring into the house of the Lord, 5 let the priests take, each from his donor, and let them repair the house wherever any need of repairs is discovered.”

A sandstone tablet containing 16 inscribed lines commemorating the renovation of Solomon’s temple by Jehoash (9^th century BC) surfaced in 2001.  The tablet measures 12” x 24” x 3”.  The Hebrew text in which it is written reads:

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An ostracon dated to the early 6^th century BC was discovered in Arad (an ancient city of Judah).  It reads, “To my lord Eliashib: May YHWH inquire after your well-being. And now, give to Shemaryahu a measure (of flour), and to the Kerosite you will give a measure (of flour). And concerning the matter about which you commanded me, it is well. He is staying in the house of YHWH.”

The author of this ostracon is unknown—as is the precise circumstances surrounding the writing—but the recipient is Eliashib.  Nothing is known about this individual.  The ostracon makes it clear, however, that the author is responding to a prior correspondence from Eliashib.  The author speaks of a mutual acquaintance as staying in the house of YHWH, which is likely a reference to Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem.

Significance:

1. This is the 2^nd oldest mention of Solomon’s temple discovered (the “3 shekel” ostracon is the oldest).
2. This was written within a few years/decades before Solomon’s Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC.

The ostracon is currently housed in The Israel Museum.

2 Kings 14:16,23  And Jehoash slept with his fathers and was buried in Samaria with the kings of Israel, and Jeroboam his son reigned in his place. 23 In the fifteenth year of Amaziah the son of Joash, king of Judah, Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel, began to reign in Samaria, and he reigned forty-one years. (ESV)

During an expedition in Meggido in 1903-4, archeologists discovered an ancient seal that reads, “Shema, servant of Jeroboam.”  Given the location and dating of the find, this seal probably belonged to an official in the court of King Jeroboam II of Israel (782-745 BC).  If so, this seal was used by a minister in Jeroboam’s court to conduct official business!

Significance:

1. This confirms the existence of King Jeroboam II.

1 Kings 19:15-16  The Lord said to him, “Go back the way you came and then head for the Desert of Damascus. Go and anoint Hazael king over Syria. 19:16 You must anoint Jehu son of Nimshi king over Israel, and Elisha son of Shaphat from Abel Meholah to take your place as prophet. 

2 Kings 10:36  Jehu reigned over Israel for twenty-eight years in Samaria.

In 1846 archaeologists discovered a black basalt, four-sided obelisk measuring 6’5” in Kalhu, Iraq (modern Nimrud).  This was the site of the ancient Assyrian capital.  The obelisk was erected as a public monument in 825 BC, glorifying Shalmaneser III’s (858-824 BC) military exploits over a period of 31 years.  It contains a mixture of reliefs and inscriptions recording the conquests of Assyrian King Shalmaneser III.  There are a total of 20 reliefs: five per side.  Five different kings are pictured paying tribute to Shalmaneser: (1) Sua of Gilzanu; (2) ruler of Musri; (3) Marduk-apil-usur of Suhi; (4) Qalparunda of Patin.  The fifth king is none other than King Jehu of Israel, who payed tribute to Shalmaneser in ~841 BC, approximately 10 years before Jehu’s reign ended.  The inscription connected to the relief of Jehu reads, “The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri: I received from him silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden vase with pointed bottom, golden tumblers, golden buckets, tin, a staff for a king [and] spears.” 

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In 1861 archeologists discovered a 7.2’ stele recording the first six years of the reign of Assyrian King Shalmaneser III (859-824 BC).[1]  The stele is dated to dated 853 BC, and describes Shalmaneser’s campaigns in western Mesopotamia and Syria.  At the end of the stele, however, it gives an account of the Battle of Qarqar.

Twelve kings allied themselves together against Shalmaneser at the Syrian city of Qarqar, one of whom was King Ahab of Israel.  The relevant portion of the stele says, “I approached the city of Qarqar. I razed, destroyed and burned the city of Qarqar , his royal city. 1,200 chariots, 1,200 cavalry, and 20,000 troops of Hadad-ezer of Damascus; 700 chariots, 700 cavalry, 10,000 troops of Irhuleni, the Hamathite; 2,000 chariots, and 10,000 troops of Ahab, the Israelite; 500 troops of Byblos; 1,000 troops of Egypt; 10 chariots and 10,000 troops of the land of Irqanatu; 200 troops of Matinu-ba’al of the city of Arvad; 200 troops of the land of Usanatu; 30 chariots and X,000 troops of Adon-ba’al of the land of Shianu, 1,000 camels of Gindibu of Arabia; X hundred troops of Ba’asa, the man of Bit ruhubi, the Ammonite–these twelve kings he took as his allies.”

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David is celebrated as the greatest, and most famous king of Israel.  It was quite interesting, therefore, that archaeologists had never turned up any reference to David outside of Biblical records.  The absence of evidence led many to conclude that David was not a historical figure.  That changed in July 1993 when archaeologists discovered three stone fragments while excavating the city gate at Dan.[1]  The stones contained an Aramaic inscription dating to the mid 9th century BC that mentions “the house of David.”  The 13 extant lines of text read:

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A pottery shard measuring 4” x 3.5” with Hebrew writing on it showed up on the antiquities market.   It reads, “As Ashyahu the king[1] commanded you to give into the hand of [Ze]chariah silver of Tarshish for the House of Yahweh: three shekels.”

It appears to be a receipt for a donation of three shekels of silver to the “House of Yahweh,” a reference to a temple.  It is dated between 835 and 796 BC, and thus likely refers to Solomon’s temple.  If so, this receipt was written approximately 130-160 years after the Temple was built.  

Significance:

1. This is the oldest mention of Solomon’s temple ever discovered.

2 Kings 3:4-6,24  Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams. 5 But when Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel. 6 So King Jehoram marched out of Samaria at that time and mustered all Israel. [The account goes on to talk about an alliance with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom.  When they run out of food and water, they consult Elisha who prophesies that the Lord will provide water for them, and defeat Moab.] 24 But when they came to the camp of Israel, the Israelites rose and struck the Moabites, till they fled before them. And they went forward, striking the Moabites as they went. … 26 When the king of Moab saw that the battle was going against him, he took with him 700 swordsmen to break through, opposite the king ofEdom, but they could not. 27 Then he took his oldest son who was to reign in his place and offered him for a burnt offering on the wall. And there came great wrath against Israel. And they withdrew from him and returned to their own land.

In 1868, at Dhiban in Jordan, archaeologists uncovered a black basalt stone measuring 3’8” x 2’3” with an inscription recording the acts of Mesha, King of Moab around 850 BC.  It contains 34 lines of text written in Moabite: (more…)

Pharaoh Shishaq's invasions recorded on the Karnak Temple

2 Chron 12:2-4,9  “Because they were unfaithful to the Lord, in King Rehoboam’s fifth year, King Shishak of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. 3 He had 1,200 chariots, 60,000 horsemen, and an innumerable number of soldiers who accompanied him fromEgypt, including Libyans, Sukkites, and Cushites. 4 He captured the fortified cities of Judahand marched against Jerusalem. 9 King Shishak of Egypt attacked Jerusalem and took away the treasures of the Lord’s temple and of the royal palace; he took everything, including the gold shields that Solomon had made.” (NET)  See also 1 Kings 14:25-26.

When archaeologists discovered the Karnak Temple of the god Amun in Egypt, on its walls there was a record of Pharaoh Shishak’s (Shoshenq I, 943-922 BC) raid of 140 different places, including cities in Judah and Israel (925 BC).  The Judahite section of the wall is mostly ruined, so we can’t see many of the names.  The engraving is dated to 924-922 BC.

Significance:

1. Confirms the Biblical account of the invasion of Judah (the Bible does not mention Shiskak’s raids in Israel).
2. Confirms some of the place names mentioned in the Biblical accounts.

2 Samuel 2:12-17  Abner the son of Ner, and the servants of Ish-bosheth the son of Saul, went out from Mahanaim to Gibeon. 13 And Joab the son of Zeruiah and the servants of David went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon. And they sat down, the one on the one side of the pool, and the other on the other side of the pool. 14 And Abner said to Joab, “Let the young men arise and compete before us.” And Joab said, “Let them arise.” 15 Then they arose and passed over by number, twelve for Benjamin and Ish-bosheth the son of Saul, and twelve of the servants of David. 16 And each caught his opponent by the head and thrust his sword in his opponent’s side, so they fell down together. Therefore that place was called Helkath-hazzurim, which is at Gibeon. 17 And the battle was very fierce that day. And Abner and the men of Israel were beaten before the servants of David. (ESV)

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In 1896 archaeologists discovered a stele in Pharaoh Merneptah’s mortuary temple in Thebes,Egypt.  The stele measures 10’4” x 5’4”, and is written in Egyptian Hieroglypics.  It dates to 1209-1208 BC, which places it during the time of the Judges.

The stele was originally erected by Pharaoh Amenhotep III, but later inscribed by Merneptah (1213-1203 BC), the son of Ramses II.

Mummy of Pharaoh Merneptah

And we have Merneptah’s mummy!

The stele describes Merneptah’s victories over the Libyans et al, but the last two lines mention a prior military campaign in Israel (this campaign is not mentioned in the Bible): “Canaan is captive with all woe. Ashkelon is conquered, Gezer seized, Yanoam made nonexistent; Israel is wasted, bare of seed.  (more…)

Judaism and Christianity are unique among the world’s religions in that they stand or fall on the veracity of their historical claims.  If the Exodus did not occur, then Judaism is false, because the God of Judaism is the God who revealed Himself to the Hebrew people through the Exodus.  If Jesus did not exist or was not resurrected from the dead, then Christianity is false.  Other religions may incorporate historical elements into their religion, but the religious claims of the system are not based on such historical details.  If you removed the historical elements, the philosophical, ethical, and ritual teachings would still remain.  They are able to stand on their own fully apart from any historical context.  

Given the centrality historical events play in the Judaeo-Christian religions, it is important to establish the reliability of the historical accounts in order to lend credibility to the veracity of the spiritual claims that are tied to such events.  It’s important to establish that the stories we read about in the Bible are not mere stories or myths, but genuine historical events that transpired in a specific time and locale.  Can this be done?  Yes.  The historical claims of Judaism and Christianity can be corroborated by archaeological discoveries. 

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Perhaps some of you have heard about the discovery of ~70 lead codices that many involved with its promotion have claimed date to the 1st century, and could reveal interesting information about Jesus.  Some were even saying this find was more important than the Dead Sea Scrolls.  Based on the initial reports and media fluff (claims without any substance to back them up), I was immediately skeptical that these lead codices had anything to do with Christianity or would shed any light on the Christian faith, and thus chose not to post anything on the topic until more information came to light.  Well, it appears that I should have been even more skeptical than I was.  There is good reason to think these lead codices are forgeries.

Peter Thonemann of Wadham College in Oxford, England, was contacted prior to the press release of the discovery by one of the promoters of the find, David Elkington to help determine the meaning of some Greek text on a few of the codices.  Thonemann responded with the following conclusion:

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Catching up on old news….

Last month archaeologists announced the discovery of the oldest written document ever found in Jerusalem.  It is a small fragment of a 14^th century BC clay tablet written in ancient Akkadian.  It only contains the words “you, you were, later, to do, them,” but because it appears to be a royal document, it demonstrates that Jerusalem was a major political center prior to Israel’s take-over of the land.